Cherokee

Illustration from "The French Broad," by Constance Fenimore Woolson, in Harper's New Monthly Magazine,
Vol. 50, Issue 299, April 1875, p.633.

Chief Oconnastotee

"Monette's History gives the prophetic speech of an old chief-- Oconnastotee who began by describing the flourishing condition of his nation in the past, and the encroachments of the whites upon the retiring and expiring tribes of Indians, who left their homes and the seats of their ancestors to gratify the insatiable thirst of the white people for more land. Whole nations had melted away, and had left their names only as recorded by their enemies and destroyers.  It was once hoped that they would not be willing to travel beyond the mountains so far from the ocean on which their commerce was carried on.  That fallacious hope had vanished, for the whites had already settled on the Cherokee lands, and now wished to have their usurpations sanctioned by treaty.  When that shall have been done new sessions will be applied for, and finally the country which the Cherokees and their forefathers occupied will be applied for.  The small remnant which may then exist of this once great and powerful nation will be compelled to seek a new home in some far distant wilderness." (1883, Ziegler, pp 30-31)

Chief Smith of Yellow Hill

"Chief Smith resides in a comfortable house of four rooms, situated on top of an elevation in the midst of a plain of considerable extent.  In an open yard near the house is a farm building used for a school-house, meeting-house, and council-house.  We found Chief Smith in his residence, writing at a table covered with books, pamphlets, letters, and manuscripts.  The room is neatly papered and comfortably furnished.  The chief received us with cordiality.  He was dressed in white starched shirt, with collar and cuffs, prince Albert coat, well-fitting black pantaloons and calf-skin bots shining like ebony.  He is more than six feet tall, straight as a plumb line, and rather slender. His features are rough and prominent.  His forehead is full but not high, and his thick, black hair, combed to perfect smoothness, hung down behind large protruding ears, almost to the coat collar.  He has a deep, full-toned voice, and earnest, impressive manner.  His wife is a white woman, and his daughters, bright, intelligent girls, have been well-educated.  One of them was operating a sewing-machine, another writing for her father.

"Under the present constitution the chief's term of office is four years.  His salary is $500 a year and $4 a day additional when on business in Washington.  No one but a Cherokee of more than 35 years of age is eligible to the chieftainship.  There is an assistant chief who receives $250 yearly.  He is one of the council, and in the absence of the chief performs his duties.  There are in addition three executive advisers.  The council consists of two delegates to every 100 persons.  It is presided over by the chief, who has the veto power, but who is not at liberty to act in any matter of public policy without the authority of the council.  Every male Indian over sixteen years old, and every white man who has an Indian wife, is allowed to vote.  No one is eligible to office who has ever aided and abetted, or in any way joined the whites in defrauding the tribe; neither can any one hold office who denies the being of a God, or of a future state of rewards and punishments.  There is general satisfaction with the present government, and Mr. Smith declares there is entire loyalty in all the settlements" (1883, Ziegler, pp.38-39) 

Cherokees

"But, leaving the intellectual tour of view, the most interesting character whom I have seen about Franklin is an old Cherokee Indian.  His name is Sa-taw-ha, or Hog-Bite, and he is upwards of one hundred years of age.  He lives in a small log hut among the mountains, the door of which is so very low that you have to crawl into it upon your hands and knees.  At the time the greater part of his nation were removed to the Far West, the 'officer of justice' called to obtain his company.  He saw them as they approached, and taking his loaded rifle in hand, he warned them not to attempt to lay their hands upon him, for he would certainly kill them. He was found to be so resolute and so very old, that it was finally concluded by those in power that the old man should be left alone.  He lives the life of a hermit, and is chiefly supported by the charity of one or two Indian neighbors, though it is said he even now occasionally manages to kill a deer or turkey.  His history is entirely unknown, and he says he can remember the time when the Cherokee nation lived upon the shores of a great ocean, (the Atlantic,) the the color of a white man's face was unknown.

"In the immediate vicinity of this place may be seen another of those mysterious Indian mounds which we find beautifying nearly all the valleys of this land.  And here it may not be out of place for me to introduce the opinions concerning their origin which prevail among the Indian tribes of the South.  By some they are said to have been built by a race of people who have become extinct, and were formerly used by the Cherokees merely as convenient places to have their dances and their games.  A superstition also prevails, that in the ancient days every Indian brought to a certain place a small bark full of the soil which he cultivated, as a tribute to the Great Spirit, who in return sent them a plenteous harvest.  Some allege that they were the burial places of great warriors and hunters; some that they were erected as trophies of remarkable victories; other that they were built as fortresses; and others still that upon them were preformed the more sacred of religious rites.  There is also a tradition existing among the Cherokees that these mounds formerly contained a species of sacred fire; and it is well known that an Indian has never been known to deface one of them, and to see them defaced by the white man always seems to make them unhappy.  The only light (in the way of opinion) that I can throw upon these mounds is, that they owe their origin to some aboriginal custom similar to that which has brought together the huge piles of stones which the traveller meets with in various portions of the southern country.  But all this information is traditionary, the builders of these mounds are unknown, and all that even the wise of the present generation can do is to look upon them in silence and wonder.  (1849, Lanman, Charles.  Letters from the Alleghenies.  pp. 78-79)

"As they are organized at the present time, the Qualla Town people are divided into seven clans, and to each clan is assigned what is called a town, over each of which presides a regular chief.  The Cherokee nation was originally divided into seven clans, which were probably descended from certain noted families, and the old party feeling is still preserved with jealous care among their descendants in this vicinity.  The names of the clans are: In-e-chees-quah, or Bird Clan; In-egil-lohee, or Pretty-faced Clan; In-e-wo-tah, or Paint Clan; in-e-wah-he-yah, or Wolf Clan; in-e-se-ho-nih, or Blue Clan; In-e-co-wih, or Deer Clan; and In-e-eo-te-ca-wih, the meaning of which is not known.  And among the customs which prevail among these clans is one which prevents their marrying among themselves, so that they have to select their wives from a neighboring fraternity.  Formerly such marriages were prohibited by penalty of death." (1849, Lanman, p. 94)

"Whilst the Indians held possession of the country it was burnt over every year.  The fire destroyed the greater number of the young trees that were springing up, and the large ones remained thinly scattered like the apple trees in an orchard with large open spaces between.  In these, the different kinds of native vines and other wild plants--pea vine, etc, contended for the mastery, and each prevailed and excluded the other according to the vigor of its growth."  (1849 Lanman pp. 195-196)

"The Indians of this region [Blue Ridge Mountains] were Cherokees, and there seem to have been several tribes, not always on amicable terms with one another, judging from the number of arrow-heads found in certain fields near Asheville.  The country about Asheville is believed to have been a common hunting-ground without permanent settlements, which would account for the arrow-strewn battle-fields as well as for the dearth of Indian names in that section.

"The white man when he came did not enter upon the scene in a way to inspire confidence in the red man, who finally tried to hold back the hand of destiny by massacring the invaders.  This resulted in an armed force entering the mountains in the summer of 1779, burning the villages, killing the Indians, and destroying their growing crops....many of the more restless spirits among the Indians went West in search of new hunting-grounds.  Many, however, stayed at home and made the best of the new order of things, until the white conqueror finally decided to remove the whole Cherokee Nation to lands set aside in the Indian Territory...

"Now, it is one thing to decide to move an Indian and another thing to do it....when the hour struck for the Cherokees to go West,--nothing was said about their growing up with the country--lo, the band had shrunk to half its size.  This half was deported and men went out to hunt up the other half.  Any one who thinks he can find an Indian hiding in the wilds of western North Carolina, has not seen the country....In course of time the Indians returned to their homes and went on peacefully raising corn, grunting emphatic denials to any suggestion to go West.  Finally, the large territory they now own, over one hundred thousand acres, was bought for them with their own money by one who championed their rights, so that the Indians who would not go West now occupy some of the most picturesque and beautiful as well as fertile land in the North Carolina mountains.  They are known as the "Eastern band of the Cherokees", and are not "reservation Indians" in the ordinary meaning of the words since they own their land by right of purchase and are true citizens of the Republic with all the privileges of citizenship....

"The easiest way to get into the Indian country is from Whittier over the road that goes up the Oconolufty River to Cherokee, the principal Indian settlement, and where is a government school.  Another and more picturesque though longer way, a distance, if one remembers rightly, of twenty-five miles, is to go from Waynesville through the Jonathan Creek Valley and over Soco Mountain by one of the most nearly impassable roads in the mountains. But by going this way one enter the Indian country from the primeval forest, which has a certain appropriateness.  Jonathan Creek Valley, deep and so narrow...lies close under the north end of the high Balsam Mountain, and is one of those quaint survivals of other days that makes one feel, upon entering it, as though a door had been shut on the modern world.  The road follows up through the peaceful valley, past the picturesque houses with the cornfields showing above the roofs, and the gardens full of flowers, past the high-wheeled mills, and across the charming fords banked in laurel where Jonathan Creek crosses and re-crosses the road....

"At the gap you see Soco Fall and hear it thunder down the lonely cliff.  It is the wild beginning of Soco Creek that dashes down the other side of the mountain, and the road following down the gorge soon presents such an appearance that you adopt the Indian mode of progression, leaving the driver to survive or perish as fate ordains.  To cross an Indian's conception of a footbridge over the torrent dashing uproariously against the boulders that strew its course is only one degree better than trying to cross the washed-out fords in a carriage. Yet nothing can dim your pleasure in the splendid freshness and mystery of the shadowy gorge where the water shouts in a thousand voices, for you are in the Indian country where nature seems a little wilder and more secret.  The writhing limbs and deep-green foliage of monster rhododendrons crowd the banks.  Above them tower dark hemlocks.  It is twilight in the gorge, although the sun shines brightly on the tree-tops....

"The Cherokee is not a noble red man in appearance, having the flat, broad type of face with wide-apart eyes, instead of the aquiline features of the wooden warrior that used to stand outside the tobacco- shops.  The Indians cultivate the land, raise a few horses and cattle, make soapstone pipes to sell to tourists, and weave baskets.  Their lack of progress is not due to want of natural gifts we were told at the school.  They can, if they would, but they are utterly wanting in the first great incentive to work, a love of acquisition.  The negro soon develops a desire to possess things, the Cherokee never.  Perhaps he is the true philosopher, and seeing too far ahead asks, 'What is the use?'

"The Indian Country lies in a cul-de-sac between the Balsams and the Smokies, two of the grandest ranges in the Appalachians, and through it flows the Oconolufty River, swift, broad and clear as crystal, its bed strewn with boulders, large trees guarding its banks, and rhododendrons dipping to the water.  This romantic stream being too swift for a 'bench' is spanned by air-line bridges, the thought of crossing which chills the blood.  In its calmer reaches, one sees the long dugout canoes of the Indians tied to the trees along the bank, or perchance an Indian girl crossing the river standing securely at the bow of the craft and paddling against the current." (1913, Morley pp. 233-238)

"In the spring of 1848 the author, Lanman, [secretary to Daniel Webster] visited the East Cherokees and has left an interesting account of their condition at the time, together with a description of their ball-plays, dances, and customs generally, having been the guest of Colonel Thomas, of whom he speaks as the guide, counselor, and friend of the Indians, as well as their business agent and chief, so that the  connection was like that existing between a father and his children. He puts the number of Indians at about 800 Cherokee and 100 Catawba on the "Quallytown" reservation --- the name being in use thus early --- with 200 more Indians residing in the more westerly portion of the State. " (1914, Arthur,  p. 582)

 "...the manly game of ball-playing is still practiced after the ancient manner, with one or two restrictions.  In the first place, they are not allowed to wager their property on the games, as of old, unless it be some trifle in the way of a woolen belt or cotton handkerchief, and they are prohibited from choking each other, and breaking their heads and legs when excited as was their habit in former times. (1849, Lanman, Charles.  Letters from the Alleghany Mountains, p. 100)

"...The preparatory or training dance took place on the night preceding the game, and none participated in it who were not to play on the following day.  There were sixty young men present, besides the spectators, and they met on a grassy plot formed by a bend of a neighboring stream called Soco Creek.  The dancers were stripped of every particle of clothing but their waistbands; they made their own music, which was composed merely of a rapid succession of whoops and shouts; and they danced round a large blazing fire.  The night in question was very beautiful, and when this strange group was looked upon by the light of the full moon, and the wild mountain scenery on every side, they presented a most romantic appearance indeed.  They kept up the dance for over an hour, and when it was concluded, all the men immediately ran towards a deep pool in the ice-cold stream, and without waiting for the perspiration to cool. plunged into the water, and having finally emerged, started for their several homes.  This dance, I am informed, had its origin in an ancient custom which compelled all the candidates for a game of ball to inure themselves to every hardship for ten days before the game took place, and during all that time they were to eat but little food, and were to refrain from gratifying any of their sensual appetites. (1849, Lanman, p.100-101)

"On the morning of the game a large plain, lying between two hills and directly in front of the Indian Courthouse, (a large circular lodge, built of logs,) was divested of every stone and stick on its surface and at ten o'clock the spectators began to assemble.  These were composed of the old men of the nation, a large number of boys, and a still larger number of women and children.  They were all dressed in their holiday attire, so that feathers, shawl turbans, scarlet belts, and gaudy hunting shirts were quite abundant; and scattered as they were in groups of from five to fifty on the hill sides and under the shadow of the trees, they presented a most picturesque appearance.  During all this time the players had kept out of sight, and it was understood that the two parties were among the bushes, at the two ends of the plain, preparing themselves for the game.  Under the direction of the presiding chief or game-director, two poles were now erected about six hundred yards apart, on either side of a given centre, and in this centre was placed the ball.  From this point was the ball to be given to the players, and the party which first succeeded in throwing it outside of the pole belonging to their opponents to the number of twelve times were to be considered the winners. (1849, Lanman, p. 101- 102)

"Everything being ready, a shrill whoop was given from one end of the plain, and immediately answered by the opposing party, when they all made their appearance, marching slowly to the centre, shouting and yelling as they passed along.  Each party consisted of thirty splendidly formed young men, who were unincumbered by any clothing, (save their common waistband,) and every individual carried in his hand a pair of ball sticks, made with a braided bag at one end.  As the parties approached the centre, the ladyloves of the players ran out upon the plain and gave their favorite champions a variety of articles, such as belts and handkerchiefs, which they were willing to wager upon the valor of their future husbands.  This little movement struck me as particularly interesting, and I was greatly pleased with the bashfulness and yet complete confidence with which the Indian maidens manifested their preferences. (1849, Lanman, p. 102)

"When the several parties were assembled at the centre of the plain, each man selected his particular antagonist by placing his sticks at his rival's feet, after which the game-director delivered a long speech, wherein he warned them to adhere to the existing regulations; and throwing the ball high up in the air, made his escape to one side of the plain, and the game commenced.  As it proceeded, the players became greatly excited, and I noticed that the ball was never taken in hand until after it had been picked up by the spoony stick, but the expertness with which these movements were performed was indeed surprising.  At one time the whole crowd of players would rush together in the most desperate and fearful manner, presenting as they struggled for the ball, the appearance of a dozen gladiators, striving to overcome a monster serpent; and then again, as one man would secure the ball and start for the boundary line of his opponent, the races which ensued were very beautiful and exciting.  Wrestling conflicts also occurred quite frequently, and it often seemed as if the players would break every bone in their bodies as they threw each other in the air, or dragged each other over the ground; and many of the leaps which single individuals performed, were really superb.  The exercise was of a character that would kill the majority of white men.  The game lasted for about two hours and the moment it was finished the entire body of players, while yet panting with excessive fatigue, made a rush for the neighboring river, and in a short time appeared on the plain in their usual garb, and the old chief who had held the stakes awarded the prizes to the winning party. (1849, Lanman, pp. 102-103). See word: Unta'kiyasti'yi below

Christianization of Cherokee and humorless customs

"The christianization of the Cherokees was begun in 1801 by Moravian missionaries.  It was easy to adapt their old faith to the new creed, and many were converted.  Other churches have since taken up the work, Baptists deserving the most credit and next to them the Methodists.  They are naturally devout, and most of them are in regular communion with the church, thereby imposing marriage laws and other social regulations.  Christianity has strengthened and solemnized the marriage tie, which in the prouder but more barbarous condition of the tribe was a very weak relation.  Boys used to choose their wives at sixteen to eighteen years of age, live with them a few years and then abandon them and their families.  It not unfrequently happened that after rioting with strange women for a period, they came back to their first choice, unless their places had been taken by others.  Prostitution was common, thought considered the most disgraceful of crimes, and punished by shearing the head.  This punishment has been discontinued....(1883, Ziegler, pp. 39-40)

"By way of giving my readers a correct idea of the present condition of the Carolina Cherokees I will describe a visit that I paid to one of their churches on the Sabbath.  I was anxious to see how far they were advanced in the ways of Christian instruction, and though I noticed many little eccentricities, I was upon the whole very much pleased with what I saw and heard.  I was accompanied by Mr. Thomas, and we reached the rude but spacious log meeting-house about eleven o'clock.  The first hour was devoted to instructing the children from a Cherokee Catechism and the chiefs of the several clans were the officiating teachers.  At twelve o'clock a congregation of some one hundred and fifty souls was collected, a large proportion of whom were women, who were as neatly dressed as could be desired, with tidy calico gowns and fancy handkerchiefs tied over their heads.  The deportment of all present was as circumspect and solemn as I have every witnessed in any New England religious assembly.  When a prayer was offered they all fell upon their knees, and in singing all but the concluding hymn, they retained their seats.  Their form of worship was according to the Methodist custom, but in their singing there was a wild and plaintive sweetness which was very impressive.  The women and children as well as the men participated in this portion of the ceremony, and some of the female voices reminded me of the caroling of birds.  They sung four hymns; three prayers were offered by several individuals and two sermons or exhortations were delivered.  The prayers were short and pointed, and as the shortest might be considered a fair specimen of the others, I will transcribe it for the edification of my readers:

"'Almighty Lord, who art the father of the world, look down from heaven on this congregation.  Bless the Indians, and supply them with all the food and clothing they may want; bless also the white men and give them every thing they may need.  Aid us all, O Lord, in all our good works.  Take care of us through life, and receive us in heaven when the world shall be burnt up.  We pray thee to take care of this young white man who has come to this Indian meeting.  Protect him in all his travels, and go with him to his distant home, for we know by his kind words that he is a friend of the poor, ignorant and the persecuted Indian.  Amen!'  

"The first preacher who addressed the meeting was a venerable man, Big Charley, and he took for his text the entire first chapter of John; but before proceeding with his remarks, he turned to Mr. Thomas and wished to know if he should preach with the 'linguister,' or interpreter, for the benefit of the young stranger.  I told him no; but requested Mr. Thomas to take notes, and through his kindness, it is now my privilege to print the substance of that Cherokee sermon.  It was as follows:

"In the beginning of creation, the world was covered with water.  God spake the word and the dry land was made.  He next made the day and the night; also the sun, moon and stars.  He then made all the beasts and birds and fishes in the world and was much pleased.  He wanted some one to take care of all these creatures and so he made man, and from his body a woman to help him and be his companion.  He put them into a beautiful garden, which was filled with all kinds of good things to eat, but told them that there was one fruit they must not touch....

"In delivering his sermon the preacher occupied about thirty minutes; and the above facts were cemented together by a great number of flowery expressions which made it quite poetical.  His manner was impressive, but not particularly eloquent.  After he had taken his seat and a hymn had been sung, a young man stepped into the rude pulpit, who has distinguished himself by his eloquence.  His name is Tekin-neb, or the Garden of Eden.  He spoke from the same text, and his remarks bore chiefly on the redemption by Christ.  At the conclusion of his address he gave a sketch of his own religious experience, and concluded by a remarkably affecting appeal to his hearers.  His voice, emphasis, and manner were those of a genuine orator, and his thoughts were poetical to an uncommon degree.  In dwelling upon the marvellous (sic) love of the Saviour (sic), and the great wickedness of the world, he was affected to tears, and when he concluded there was hardly a dry eye in the house.

"After the benediction had been pronounced, Mr. Thomas delivered a short address to the meeting on Temperance and a few secular matters, when the Indians quietly dispersed to their several homes.  I retired to my own temporary home, deeply impressed by what I had seen and heard, for my pride had been humbled while listening to the rude savage, whose religious knowledge was evidently superior to my own."  (1849, Lanman, pp. 96-99)

"Rigid seriousness is a marked element of Indian character, and is written in unmistakable lines upon their faces.  The Cherokee language is not capable of expressing a witticism, and anything like a joke is foreign to their nature.  They have a great many so-called dances, but none of them, like the dance of the negro, is the effervescence of irrepressible joy.  The Indian dances as a preparation for some coming event; he never celebrates.  It seems to be a legacy of his heathen ideas of making sacrifice to the great spirit, apparently involving much painful labor.  In the primitive days the whole tribe danced before making war, and the warriors danced before going into battle.  It is still their custom to go through these melancholy perambulations before every contest of strength, such a a game of ball or a wrestling match.  The funeral dance and the wedding dance are performed with the same stern immobility of features." (1883, Ziegler, pp. 39-40)

"I employed the intervening time [between the ballgame and the evening dance] by going home with one of the chiefs, and eating a comfortable supper in his log cabin.  The habitation of this chief was made of hewn logs, and occupied a farm of twenty acres on the mountain side, about one-fourth of which was in a state of cultivation, and planted with corn and potatoes.  He had a tidy wife and several children, and his stock consisted of a pony, a cow and some ten or a dozen sheep.  At nine o'clock I was again in the midst of a crowd of Indians, assembled at the court-house of the town.  The edifice, so called, is built of hewn logs, very large and circular without any floor but that of solid earth, and without any seats but one short bench intended for the great men of the nation.  In the centre of this lodge was a large fire, and the number of persons who figured in the several dances of the evening, was perhaps two hundred, all fantastically dressed and including men, women and boys.  Each dancer made his own music, and with one exception, the dances were of the common Indian sort.  The exception alluded to was particularly fantastic, and called 'the Pilgrim Dance.'  They came in with packs on their backs, with their faces strangely painted and with gourds hanging at their sides, and the idea seemed to be to represent their hospitality towards all strangers who visited them from distant lands.  The dancing continued until midnight, when the presiding chief addressed the multitude on the subject of their duties as intelligent beings, and told them to return to their several homes and resume their labors in the field and in the shops.  He concluded by remarking that he hoped I was pleased with what I had witnessed, and trusted that nothing had happened which would make the wise men of my country in the East think less of the poor Indian than they did at the present time: and he then added that, according to an ancient custom, as I was a stanger they liked, the several chiefs had given me a name by which I should hereafter be remembered among the Carolina Cherokees, and that name was Ga taw hough No que sih, or The Wandering Star.  (1849 Lanman, Charles.  Letters from the Alleghany Mountains, Pp. 104-105).

"...nine-tenths of the Cherokee people 'voted to invest John Ross with full power to adjust the Nation's difficulties in whatever way he might think most beneficial.'....this majority [did not] take well to the Jackson-appointed Reverend John F. Schermerhorn, 'the loose Dutch Presbyterian minister.'  To show their contempt for Schermerhorn, Ross's supporters nickname him 'Skayooyaynah' (The Devil's Horn).... Ross's followers poked fun at Schermerhorn at the council by slyly whispering his new Indian name to members of the Ridge party, who could not resist laughing at it." (1963, Woodward, Grace. The Cherokees. P. 182)

"The only novelty that I noticed on the road to this place was the spot known as Fort Embree.  The only evidences that there ever was a fortification here are a breastwork of timber, a lot of demolished pickets, and two or three block-houses, which are now in a dilapidated condition.  The site is a commanding one, and takes in some of the grandest mountain outlines that I have yet seen.  This fort, so called, was made by the General government for the purpose of herding the poor Cherokees previous to their final banishment into exile--a most humane and christianlike work, indeed!  How reluctant the Indians were to leave this beautiful land may be shown by the fact, that a number of women destroyed themselves within this very fort rather than be driven beyond the Mississippi.  And a gentleman who saw the Indians, when they were removed, tells me that they were actually driven along the road like a herd of wild and unruly animals, a number of them having been shot down in the vicinity of this place.  All these things may have been published, but I have never seen them in print; and I now put them in print with the view of shaming our heartless and cruel Government for its unnatural conduct in times past.  The Cherokees were a nation of mountaineers, and had a wise policy been pursued with regard to them, they might now be chasing the deer upon these mountains, while all the valleys of the land might have been in a state of cultivation, even as they are now.  Not only would they have had the happiness of hunting their favorite game upon their native hills, but they might have been educated with more real satisfaction to themselves than they can be in the far West.  In proof of the opinion that they might have lived here in honor and comfort, it may be mentioned that the few Cherokees who were permitted to remain in Carolina, are now considered the most polite and inoffensive of the entire population; and the United States District Attorney residing in Cherokee county informs me, that of five hundred individuals whom he has had to prosecute within the last five years, only one of the was an Indian, and he was led into his difficulty by a drunken white man. But this is a theme that I could write upon for days, so I will turn to something more germain [sic] to my present purpose. ....

"My host informed me that he was one of the men appointed by the Government to assess the property of the Cherokees at the time of their removal, and was subsequently employed to aid in their coerced removal.  With a view to pacifying the Indians, it had been stipulated that the cabin and improvements of each Indian should be assessed, and an equivalent in money should be paid into his hands for said property; and a part of the nation, it will be remembered, including the head chief [John Ross?], were opposed to the treaty of banishment.  In fulfilling his duties as a Government officer, my informant endured many hardships, subjected himself to much peril, and met with many touching as well as some ridiculous scenes.  In the course of a few months he visited, in connection with his assistant and interpreter, every cabin in the counties of Cherokee and Macon; and, from the numerous adventures which he related to me, I will record two or three."'At one time,' said my friend, 'we arrived at a cabin where we knew resided, 'solitary and alone,' an old bachelor Indian.  It was night, and very cold and stormy.  As we were tying our horses the Indian heard us, and, knowing our business, immediately arose and fastened his door that we should not get in.  We remonstrated from without, and told him we were almost frozen, and he must admit us, but never a word would he answer; and this was repeated several times.  We finally got mad and knocked down the door and entered.  The Indian was lying upon a bench before the fire, and by his side were four dogs.  We asked him a number of questions, but still did he keep silent.  We had by this time made up our minds to 'take care of number one,' and proceeded to cook our bacon. In doing this we had great difficulty on account of the dogs, which were almost starved to death, and were constantly grabbing up our victuals from the coals.  They were the ugliest animals that I ever saw, and did not care a pin for the heavy licks that we gave them. and the only way we could get along was for the interpreter to cook the meat, while my assistant and myself seated ourselves at the two corners of the hearth, and as the dogs jumped over the body of the Indian, (who was yet lying on his bench,) we would grab them by the neck and tail and pitch them across the room.  So this interesting business continued until the meat was cooked.  I then took a slice, put it on a piece of bread, and giving it to the Indian, said to him: 'Now don't be a fool, take this meat and be good friends, for we don't want to injure you.' Whereupon he got over his resentment, took the meat, and began talking so that we could not stop him.'

"But another incident related to me was truly affecting, and occurred at the time of removal. 'There was an old Indian,' continued my host, 'named Euchellah, who had thrown out the idea that he was a strong man, and never would submit to leave his cabin willingly:  those who wanted him to go must take him by force.  It was in the forenoon, and a whole posse of officers entered his cabin, and after a pretty severe scuffle we succeeded in fastening the old fellow's arms and hands with a rope.  He now saw that he must go, and told his wife to get ready, and she got ready by going out to feed her pig and the chickens, just as if she was coming back in a few hours.  We then started with our prisoners, and just as we were crossing a hill which overlooked the Indian's cabin, he suddenly wheeled about, and as his eyes fell upon his little garden and his hut, he burst into tears, and I thought the man's heart would break.  And now when people tell me that the Indian never weeps, I tell them it's no such thing; but, it was true, Euchellah had some reason to feel bad; for he had four children buried near his cabin, and had lived there for fifty years. We continued on our way to the West, but in two days our Indian made his escape with his wife.  We hunted for them among the mountains, and though we recaptured Euchellah, we never could find his wife and afterward heard that she starved to death on a distant mountain. The Indian was now guarded by four soldiers; but, while crossing a certain gap, he suddenly rose upon his keepers and killed three of them, while the other officer, as well as himself, escaped.  The Indian was again taken prisoner, tried by court martial, and sentenced to be executed.  When told that he was to be shot down by a rifle ball, he manifested no fear, and , up to the moment that he was shot down, not a tear made its appearance in his eye.  He could weep on leaving his home, but he would not weep when he came to die.  And the old man was buried on the road side, half way between this place and Murphy.' 

"'But another removal incident that I remember,' continued my landlord, 'was to this effect.  It was another old Indian who had a large family and was religious.  When we called to take him, he said he only wanted to ask one favor, which was, that we would let him have one more prayer with his wife and children in his old cabin.   We of course granted the request, and when he was through, out came the old fellow and said that he was ready.  But just as we were leaving the little clearing, the Indian called his wife and children to his side, and talked to them in the most poetical and affecting manner about their meager but much-loved possession, when they were about to leave for ever.  he then took the lead of our procesion, and without uttering a word, marched onward with a firm step.  We never heard this man's voice again until we had passed beyond the Mississippi.'" (1849, Lanman, Charles. Letters from the Alleghany Mountains, pp. 60-62; 69-72)

"Now, it is one thing to decide to move an Indian and another thing to do it....when the hour struck for the Cherokees to go West,--nothing was said about their growing up with the country--lo, the band had shrunk to half its size.  This half was deported and men went out to hunt up the other half.  Any one who thinks he can find an Indian hiding in the wilds of western North Carolina, has not seen the country....In course of time the Indians returned to their homes and went on peacefully raising corn, grunting emphatic denials to any suggestion to go West.  Finally, the large territory they now own, over one hundred thousand acres, was bought for them with their own money by one who championed their rights, so that the Indians who would not go West now occupy some of the most picturesque and beautiful as well as fertile land in the North Carolina mountains.  They are known as the "Eastern band of the Cherokees", and are not "reservation Indians" in the ordinary meaning of the words since they own their land by right of purchase and are true citizens of the Republic with all the privileges of citizenship...." (1913, Morley, p. 234)

Colonel W. H. Thomas and Chief Younaguska

 ["...those who accepted the advice and offices of Col. W. H. Thomas (in 1819) and remained in North Carolina...are known as the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation.  They are steadily decreasing in numbers, there being at present but slightly above 1100 souls..] Colonel Thomas, who was, until recent years, the chief of the band, was born in the Pigeon river valley, and at a very early age, left an orphan. Felix Walker, the Congressional representative from the Western North Carolina district, had two stores, one at Waynesville and one in the Indian country, on Soco, in which latter store young Thomas was placed as clerk.  Most of the customers being Indians, he soon learned to speak and write Cherokee.  These linguistic attainments made him invaluable to the tribe for the transaction of public and private business.  Younaguska (Drowning Bear), the reigning chief, adopted the lad into his family and tribe, and gave him entire clerical charge of public affairs.

"The chief, Younaguska, was an extraordinary Indian.  He was acute, vigorous, and determined; qualities which made him both respected and feared by his people.  He knew how to control their weaknesses and use their superstitions.

"The Cherokees, like all Indians who come in contact with the whites, became intemperate.  Younaguska, though himself addicted to the use of whisky to excess, determined upon a reformation of his people.  He sank into a trance, so heavy that the whole town supposed him to be dead, though some signs of life remained.  Anxiously they watched and waited for fifteen days, when it was determined to perform the funeral rites according to their ancient usages.  The tribe assembled.  The plaintive notes of the funeral song began to mingle with the roll of the Lufty.  They marched and counter-marched, 1,200 of them , around the prostrate body of their chief.  Then came a sudden pause and fright, for the dead had returned to life!  An old familiar voice was summoning their attention.  He spoke with deep feeling, telling his people that he had been in a trance; that he had communed with the great spirit; that his long service for his people was not yet ended; he was to remain with them as many years as he had been days in the 'happy hunting ground'.

"Having thus given to his speech the authority of inspiration, he proceeded to tell them that he had served them upwards of 40 years without any pecuniary consideration whatever.  His sole aim had been to promote their good.  Their happiness in the future was his chief concern.  He was convinced that intemperance was the cause of the extermination of the Indian tribes who lived in contact with the whites.  As an example he referred to the previous and present condition of the Catawbas, with whom they were acquainted.  He deplored the scenes of dissipation so common among his own people, and closed by directing Mr. Thomas, from whom this account has been derived, to write the following pledge:  "The undersigned Cherokees, belonging to the town of Qualla, agree to abandon the use of spirituous liquors."  The old chief signed first and was followed by the whole town.  This pledge was enforced with the rigor of a written law, its violation in every instance being punished at the public whipping post.  Younaguska expressed pleasure in the knowledge that his people confided in him.  He advised them to remain where they were, in North Carolina, a State more friendly and better disposed toward the red man than any other.  Should they remove west they would there too soon be surrounded by the whites and perhaps included in a State disposed to oppress them.

"Younaguska's influence over them was well nigh omnipotent, and was exerted uniformly with a view to their improvement.  Colonel Thomas, whose acquaintance with public men was extensive, has declared that this old Indian was the intellectual peer of John C. Calhoun.  There is certainly a place in history for the individual, whatever be his race, who can elevate a band of warriors and hunters into a community of agriculturists, capable of raising their own food and manufacturing their own clothing.

"Before Younaguska died he assembled his people and publicly willed the chieftainship to his clerk, friend and adopted son, W. H. Thomas, who he commended as worthy of respect and whom he adjured them to obey as they had obeyed him.  He was going to the home provided for him by the great spirit; he would always keep watch over his people and would be grieved to see any of them disobey the new chief he had chosen to rule over them.  It was therefore under the most auspicious circumstances that Colonel Thomas became chief of the Eastern Band of the Cherokees.  He had been with them long enough to know their character.  He made himself absolute in everything, and required the strictest obedience.  He kept constantly in their minds the injunction of Younaguska, and warned them at every critical juncture of the danger of incurring the displeasure of the spirit of their old chief.  Councils were held according to the ancient usages of the tribe but they did little more than confirm the transactions of the chief.

"Colonel Thomas, as provided by the treaty of 1835, used the funds of the Indians in the purchase of homes.  he provided for their education and encouraged religious exercises among them.  When the war broke out he led four companies into the Confederate army.  They showed capacity for discipline and were not wanting in courage; but like a great many of these highlanders, they had no interest in the cause, and employed the first opportunity to desert, some of them joining the Federal army and many finding their mountain homes.  During the war the tribe's internal affairs were in chaos, its councils were without a head, and its members lapsed into dissipation and laziness.  The ban of an adverse fatality seemed to rest over these unfortunate pilgrims on their way from barbarism to civilization."  (1883, Ziegler, pp. 32-35)

Eastern Band of the Cherokee, 1880 -- census & description

["The Eastern Band of Cherokees have title in fee simple to 50,000 acres of land on the Ocona Lufta and Soco creek, known as the Qualla boundary ... there are 1,521 acres in detached tracts in (nearby counties).  According to the census of 1880, there were living in the Qualla reserve, 825; in Cherokee county, 83; in Graham county, 189; in Macon county, 12; making a total of 1,109 - ten per cent less than in 1870.]

"The Indians have no towns, nor does their manner of life differ in many particulars from that of the white people among whom they reside.  A stranger, unless he sees the inmates, does not distinguish an Indian cabin from a white man's nor, with few exceptions, an Indian's little cove farm from one of its class cultivated by a white man.

"The valley of Soco is the locality of densest Indian population.  The fields, originally of average fertility, are worn out by bad farming.  There is an abundance of fruit--apples, peaches and plums.  The predominant crop is corn, which is reduced to meal by the simple little mills common to the mountain country.  Small herds of ponies are frequently seen by the wayside.   These, and a few cattle, are the main sources of revenue upon which the people rely for what money they need.  Taxes and expenses incident to their government, including schools, is the extend of cash demand made upon them.  They manufacture their own clothing.  The primitive dress of the warriors and hunters consisted of deer skin leggins and moccasins, a highly colored shirt, and a kind of turban ornamented with feathers.  The moccasins alone survive, the dress of an Indian in all other respects being like that of his white neighbor.  The Cherokee women of the present generation are unattractive. Some of the young children who attend school are clean and neat in person and dress, which is more than can be said of many of the mothers.  The women are seldom seen upon the road without burdens, though the men rarely carry anything." (1883, Ziegler, pp.36-37)

"Old Field Mountain" myth

["The Cherokees knew no natural reason why the tops of high mountains should be treeless, but having faith in a personal devil they jumped at the conclusion that the 'bald' spots must be the prints of his horrid feet as he walked with giant strides from peak to peak."] (1883, Ziegler, p. 20)

"Old Field mountain, in the Balsam range, derives its name from the tradition that it was Satan's bed-chamber.  The Cherokees of a recent generation affirm that his royal majesty was often seen by their forefathers, and even some of the first white settlers had knowledge of his presence.  On the top of the mountain there is a prairie-like tract, almost level, reached by steep slopes covered with thickets of balsam and rhododendron, which seem to garrison the reputed sacred domain.  It was understood among the Indians to be forbidden territory, but a party one day permitted their curiosity to tempt them.  They forced a way through the entangled thickets, and with merriment entered the open ground.  Aroused from sleep and enraged by their audacious intrusion, the devil, taking the form of an immense snake, assaulted the party and swallowed 50 of them before the thicket could be regained.

"Among the first whites who settled among the Indians and traded with them, was a party of hunters who used this superstition to escape punishment for their reprehensible conduct.  They reported that they were in league with the great spirit of evil, and to prove that they were, frequented this 'old field'.  They described his bed, under a large overhanging rock, as a model of neatness.  They had frequently thrown into it stones and brushwood during the day, while the master was out, but the place was invariably as clean the next morning 'as if it had been brushed with a bunch of feathers'." (1883, Ziegler, pp.21-22)

"Paradise Gained" Myth

"The Indians believed that they were originally mortal in spirit as well as body, but above the blue vault of heaven there was, inhabited by a celestial race, a forest into which the highest mountains lifted their dark summits.  It is a fact worth noticing that, while the priests of the orient described heaven as a great city with streets of gold and gates of pearl and fine gems, the tribes of the western continent aspired to nothing beyond the perpetual enjoyment of wild nature.

"The mediator, by whom eternal life was secured for the Indian mountaineers, was a maiden of their own tribe.  Allured by the haunting sound and diamond sparkle of a mountain stream, she wandered far up into a solitary glen, where the azalea, the kalmia and the rhododendron brilliantly embellished the deep, shaded slopes and filled the air with their delicate perfume.  The crystal stream wound its crooked way between moss covered rocks over which tall ferns bowed their graceful stems.  Enchanted by the scene she seated herself upon the soft moss and overcome by fatigue was soon asleep.  The dream picture of a fairyland was presently broken by the soft touch of a strange hand.  The spirit of her dream occupied a place at her side, and wooing, won her for his bride.

"Her supposed abduction caused great excitement among her people, who made diligent search for her recovery in their own villages.  Being unsuccessful, they made war upon the neighboring tribes in the hope of finding the place of her concealment.  Grieved because of so much bloodshed and sorrow, she besought the great chief of the eternal hunting grounds to make retribution.  She was accordingly appointed to call a council of her people at the forks of the Wayeh (Pigeon) river.  She appeared unto the chiefs in a dream, and charged them to meet the spirits of the hunting ground with fear and reverence.

"At the hour appointed the head men of the Cherokees assembled.  The high Balsam peaks were shaken by thunder and aglare with lighning.  The cloud, as black as midnight, settled over the valley; then lifted, leaving upon a large rock a cluster of strange men, armed and painted as for war. An enraged brother of the abducted maiden swung his tomahawk, and raised the war whoop; but a swift thunderbolt dispatched him before the echo had died in the hills.  The chiefs, terror-stricken, fled to their towns.

"The bride, grieved by the death of her brother and failure of the council, prepared to abandon her new home and return to her kindred in the valleys.  To reconcile her the promise was granted that all brave warriors and their faithful women should have an eternal home in the happy hunting ground above, after death.  The great chief of the forest beyond the clouds became the guardian spirit of the Cherokees.  All deaths, either from wounds in battle, or disease, were attributed to his desire to make additions to the celestial hunting ground, or on the other hand, to his wrath which might cause their unfortunate spirits to be turned over to the disposition of the evil genius of the mountain tops."  (1883, Ziegler, pp 22-24)

"Devil's Courthouse" Myth

["The Cherokees knew no natural reason why the tops of high moutnains should be treeless, but having faith in a personal devil they jumped at the conclusion that the 'bald' spots must be the prints of his horrid feet as he walked with giant strides from peak to peak.]

"Near the Great Divide, between the waters of Pigeon river and French Broad, is situated the Devil's Court-house, which rises to an altitude of 6, 049 feet.  Near it is court-house mountain.  At both places his Satanic majesty was believed to sit in judgment, and doom to punishment all who had been wayward in courage, or had departed from a strict code of virtue, though bravery in war atoned for a multitude of sins.

"The devil had beside these a supreme court-house, where finally all mankind would be summoned for trial.  This was one of the great precipices of the Whiteside mountain, situated in Jackson county, at the southern terminus of the Cowee range.  There is no wonder that the simple minded pagans supposed that nature had dedicated this structure to supernatural use, for it excels in grandeur the most stupendous works of human hands.  It consists of a perpendicular wall of granite, so curved as to form an arc more than a mile long, and rises 1,800 feet from the moss-blanketed rocks which form the pavement of an enclosed court.  About half way up there is a shelf-like projection, not more than two feet wide, which leads from one side to a cave.  This was supposed to the the inner room of the great temple, whence the judge of human conduct would come to pronounce sentence at the end of the world.  That this important business should be entrusted to Satan is a mythological incongruity.  A certain sorcerer, or medicine-man, taking advantage of the popular superstition about the place, made the cave his home, going in and out by the narrow shelf.  He announced that he was in league with the spirits of the next world, and consequently could go in and out with perfect safety, which fact caused him to be recognized as a great man. " (1883, Ziegler, pp. 20-21) 

"Qualla Town is a name applied to a tract of seventy-two thousand acres of land, in Haywood county, which is occupied by about eight hundred Cherokee Indians and one hundred Catawbas.  Their district is mountainous from one extremity to the other, and watered by a number of beautiful streams, which abound in fish; the valleys and slopes are quite fertile, and the lower mountains are well adapted to grazing, and at the same time are heavily timbered and supplied with every variety of game.  This portion of a much larger multitude of aborigines, in consideration of their rank and age, and of valuable services rendered to the United States, were permitted by the General government to remain upon their native soil, while the great body of the Cherokee nation were driven into exile.  ....since the removal, those in the West have gradually decreased in numbers, while the remaining portion have steadily increased by births at the rate of four per cent per annum.  I...purpose to confine my remarks to those of Qualla Town alone.

"The Indians of this district, having formed themselves into a regular company, with appropriate regula- tions, they elected an old friend of theirs, named William H. Thomas, (mentioned in my last letter,) to become their business chief, so that the connection now existing between the two parties is that of father and children....  

"With regard to the extent of their civilization and their existing manner of life, the following may be looked upon as a comprehensive summary:  About three-fourths of the entire population can read in their own language, and though the majority of them understand English, a very few can speak the language.  They practise to a considerable extent, the science of agriculture and have acquired such a knowledge of the mechanic arts as answers them for all ordinary purposes, for they manufacture their own clothing, their own ploughs and other farming utensils, their own axes, and even their own guns.  Their women are no longer treated as slaves, but as equals; the men labor in the fields, and their wives are devoted entirely to household employments.  They keep the same domestic animals that are kept by their white neighbors, and cultivate all the common grains of the country.  They are probably as temperate as any other class of people on the face of the earth, honest in their business intercourse, moral in their thoughts, words and deeds, and distinguished for their faithfulness in performing the duties of religion. They are chiefly Methodists and Baptists and have regularly ordained ministers who preach to them on every Sabbath, and they have also abandoned many of their mere senseless superstitions.  They have their own courts and try their criminals by a regular jury.  Their judges and lawyers are chosen from among themselves.  They keep in order the public roads leading through their settlement.  By a law of the State, they have the right to vote, but seldom exercise that right, as they do not like the idea of being identified with any of the political parties.  Excepting on festive days, they dress after the manner of the white man, but far more picturesquely.  They live in small log houses of their own construction, and have every thing they need or desire in the way of food.  They are, in fact, the happiest community that I have yet met within this Southern country, and no candid man can visit them without being convinced of the wicked- ness and foolishness of that policy of the Government which has always acted upon the opinion that the red man could not be educated into a reasonable being."  (1849, Lanman, pp.93-96)

"The second character that I will introduce to my readers is now living in Qualla Town. His name is Salola, or the Squirrel.  He is quite a young man, and has a remarkably thoughtful face.  He is the blacksmith of his nation, and with some assistance supplies the whole of Qualla Town with all their axes and ploughs; but what is more, he has manufactured a number of very superior rifles and pistols including stock, barrel and lock; and he is also the builder of grist-mills, which grind all the corn which his people eat.  A specimen of his workmanship, in the way of a rifle, may be seen at the Patent-Office in Washington, where it was deposited by Mr. Thomas; and I believe Salola is the first Indian who ever manufactured an entire gun.  But when it is remembered that he never received a particle of education in any of the mechanic arts, but is entirely self-taught, his attainments must be considered truly remarkable.

"That he labors under every disadvantage in his most worthy calling may be shown by the fact that he uses a flint-stone for an anvil and a water-blast for a bellows.  In every particular he is a most worthy man, and though unable to speak the English tongue, is a very good scholar in his own language.  He is the husband of a Catawba woman, whom he married before he could speak one word of her own tongue, or she could speak Cherokee; but they have now established a language of their own by which they get along very well. Salola, upon the whole, is an honor to the country, and one whose services in some iron or steel establishment of the eastern cities would be of great value.  Is there not some gentleman in Philadelphia or New-York who would take pleasure in patronizing this mechanical prodigy of the wilderness? "  (1849, Lanman, P. 111)

Native Americans